---
title: "Impact of COVID-19 on Children's Social and Emotional Development: A Prospective Quasi-Experimenta"
id: "pubmed-42578746"
canonical_url: "https://medichelpline.com/clinical-feed/pubmed-42578746"
content_type: "clinical_feed_article"
specialty: "Critical Care"
source_name: "PubMed / NCBI"
source_url: "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42578746/"
doi: "10.1093/chidev/aacag145"
published_at: "2026-08-29T00:00:00.000Z"
evidence_level: "Journal Article"
license: "CC-BY-NC-4.0 / Informational Use"
---
# Impact of COVID-19 on Children's Social and Emotional Development: A Prospective Quasi-Experimenta
## Provenance & Clinical Metadata
- **Canonical URL:** https://medichelpline.com/clinical-feed/pubmed-42578746
- **Specialty:** [Critical Care](https://medichelpline.com/clinical-feed/critical-care.md)
- **Primary Source:** PubMed / NCBI
- **Source URL:** [Original Journal Publication](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42578746/)
- **DOI:** [10.1093/chidev/aacag145](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fchidev%2Faacag145)
- **Published At:** 2026-08-29T00:00:00.000Z
- **Evidence Rating:** Journal Article
## Executive GIST (TL;DR)
- This prospective, multi-method, multi-informant study followed 310 low-to-middle-income U.S. families across six waves spanning roughly eight years to examine child psychopathology trajectories before and after the COVID-19 pandemic. - The cohort's target children were followed from preschool (Wave 1 mean age 2.97 years) to middle childhood (Wave 6 mean age 9.32 years). Demographics included 55.3% girls and racial composition reported as 55.2% White, 21.3% African American, and 16.2% mixed race. - Analyses assessed linear developmental growth in symptoms and added a COVID-related growth component to isolate pandemic effects. Findings demonstrated significant linear increases in **internalizing problems** and an additional COVID-related increase beyond that linear trend. - The study tested parenting as a moderator of COVID impact. Pre-pandemic parenting characteristics altered child sensitivity to pandemic stress: low paternal structure and consistency and low parental secure-base provision amplified COVID-related increases in internalizing symptoms. - The moderating pattern indicated greater increases in internalizing problems under high pandemic impact for children exposed to lower parental structure/secure-base provision, while under low pandemic impact these same children showed smaller increases. - Data collection included three targeted post-lockdown waves to rigorously capture pandemic-linked changes. The study focuses on emotional difficulties such as sadness and anxiety when referring to internalizing problems. - Keywords reported by the authors were COVID-19 pandemic, child psychopathology, and parenting. No conflicts of interest were declared in the source report.
## Clinical Analysis & Structured Key Points
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Hope Family Center, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States."), [Melissa L Sturge-Apple](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=Sturge-Apple+ML&cauthor_id=42578746)[ 1 ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42578746/#full-view-affiliation-1 "Mt. Hope Family Center, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States.")[ 2 ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42578746/#full-view-affiliation-2 "Department of Psychology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States.")[ 3 ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42578746/#full-view-affiliation-3 "Warner School of Education, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States."), [Leena Twal](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=Twal+L&cauthor_id=42578746)[ 1 ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42578746/#full-view-affiliation-1 "Mt. Hope Family Center, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States.")[ 2 ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42578746/#full-view-affiliation-2 "Department of Psychology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States."), [Elisa R de la Fuente](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=de+la+Fuente+ER&cauthor_id=42578746)[ 1 ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42578746/#full-view-affiliation-1 "Mt. Hope Family Center, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States.")[ 3 ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42578746/#full-view-affiliation-3 "Warner School of Education, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States."), [Patrick T Davies](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=Davies+PT&cauthor_id=42578746)[ 1 ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42578746/#full-view-affiliation-1 "Mt. Hope Family Center, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States.")[ 2 ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42578746/#full-view-affiliation-2 "Department of Psychology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States.") Affiliations Expand ### Affiliations * 1 Mt. Hope Family Center, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States. * 2 Department of Psychology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States. * 3 Warner School of Education, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States. * PMID: **42578746** * DOI: [ 10.1093/chidev/aacag145 ](https://doi.org/10.1093/chidev/aacag145) Item in Clipboard # Children's social and emotional development in the shadow of a pandemic: A prospective, quasi-experimental study Zhi Li et al. Child Dev. 2026. Show details Display options Display options Format Abstract PubMed PMID Child Dev Actions * [ Search in PubMed ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=%22Child+Dev%22%5Bjour%5D&sort=date&sort_order=desc) * [ Search in NLM Catalog ](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nlmcatalog?term=%22Child+Dev%22%5BTitle+Abbreviation%5D) * [ Add to Search ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42578746/) . 2026 Aug 29;97(5):1578-1593. doi: 10.1093/chidev/aacag145. ### Authors [Zhi Li](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=Li+Z&cauthor_id=42578746)[ 1 ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42578746/#short-view-affiliation-1 "Mt. Hope Family Center, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States."), [Melissa L Sturge-Apple](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=Sturge-Apple+ML&cauthor_id=42578746)[ 1 ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42578746/#short-view-affiliation-1 "Mt. Hope Family Center, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States.")[ 2 ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42578746/#short-view-affiliation-2 "Department of Psychology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States.")[ 3 ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42578746/#short-view-affiliation-3 "Warner School of Education, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States."), [Leena Twal](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=Twal+L&cauthor_id=42578746)[ 1 ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42578746/#short-view-affiliation-1 "Mt. Hope Family Center, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States.")[ 2 ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42578746/#short-view-affiliation-2 "Department of Psychology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States."), [Elisa R de la Fuente](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=de+la+Fuente+ER&cauthor_id=42578746)[ 1 ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42578746/#short-view-affiliation-1 "Mt. Hope Family Center, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States.")[ 3 ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42578746/#short-view-affiliation-3 "Warner School of Education, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States."), [Patrick T Davies](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=Davies+PT&cauthor_id=42578746)[ 1 ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42578746/#short-view-affiliation-1 "Mt. Hope Family Center, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States.")[ 2 ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42578746/#short-view-affiliation-2 "Department of Psychology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States.") ### Affiliations * 1 Mt. Hope Family Center, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States. * 2 Department of Psychology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States. * 3 Warner School of Education, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States. * PMID: **42578746** * DOI: [ 10.1093/chidev/aacag145 ](https://doi.org/10.1093/chidev/aacag145) Item in Clipboard Full text links Cite Display options Display options Format Abstract PubMed PMID ## Abstract This multi-method, multi-informant, quasi-experimental study examines trajectories of child psychopathology over an 8-year period pre-and post-COVID-19 pandemic. We examined parenting as a moderator of the COVID-19 impact. Participants were 310 low-to-middle-income families from the United States with a target child followed over 6 waves (Wave 1, Mage = 2.97, SD = 0.38; 55.3% girls; 55.2% White, 21.3% African American, 16.2% mixed race; Wave 6: Mage = 9.32, SD = 0.76). Findings indicated that children exhibit significant linear growth and COVID-related growth above and beyond the linear growth in internalizing problems. Pre-COVID parenting moderated this effect, such that low paternal structure and consistency and low parental secure-base provision strengthened the association between COVID impact and the growth of internalizing problems, yielding greater increases under high impact and lower increases under low impact. **Keywords:** COVID-19 pandemic; child psychopathology; parenting. ## Plain language summary This prospective study tracked children's mental health over 8 years. To rigorously assess the pandemic effects, we designed and implemented three targeted waves of data collection following early lockdowns. We found that pandemic disruptions generally increased children's emotional struggles, such as sadness and anxiety. Importantly, parenting shaped these reactions. Children receiving fewer consistent rules and less emotional reassurance were highly sensitive to their environment. Under severe pandemic stress, these children developed the most emotional problems; under low stress, however, they showed fewer problems. © The Author(s) 2026. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Society for Research in Child Development. All rights reserved. For commercial re-use, please contact reprints@oup.com for reprints and translation rights for reprints. All other permissions can be obtained through our RightsLink service via the Permissions link on the article page on our site—for further information please contact journals.permissions@oup.com. [PubMed Disclaimer](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/disclaimer/) ## Conflict of interest statement Conflicts of interest: None declared. ## Similar articles * [ Pre-pandemic family resources and child self-regulation in children's internalizing problems during COVID-19: a multi-level social-ecological framework for emotional resilience. ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37564305/) Chen L, Yeung WJ.Chen L, et al.Front Psychol. 2023 Jul 26;14:1203524. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1203524. eCollection 2023.Front Psychol. 2023.PMID: 37564305Free PMC article. * [ Assessing the impact of COVID-19 on the physical activity of 10-11-year-old children and their parents: Active-6 a mixed-methods study. ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39579379/) Jago R, House D, Salway R, Walker R, Emm-Collison L, Sansum K, Breheny K, Churchward S, Williams JG, Hollingworth W, de Vocht F.Jago R, et al.Public Health Res (Southampt). 2024 Nov;12(16):1-29. doi: 10.3310/WYHT5821.Public Health Res (Southampt). 2024.PMID: 39579379 * [ Clinical and cost-effectiveness of parenting intervention for mothers experiencing psychosocial stress: insights from the early closure of the Mellow Babies RCT. ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39704733/) Thompson L, Tanner J, Breckons M, Young N, Ternent L, Vadiveloo T, Wilson P, Wight D, Marryat L, McGowan I, MacLennan G, MacBeth A, McTaggart J, Allison T, Norrie J.Thompson L, et al.Public Health Res (Southampt). 2024 Dec;12(17):1-115. doi: 10.3310/KCVL7125.Public Health Res (Southampt). 2024.PMID: 39704733Clinical Trial. * [ Folic acid supplementation and malaria susceptibility and severity among people taking antifolate antimalarial drugs in endemic areas. ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36321557/) Crider K, Williams J, Qi YP, Gutman J, Yeung L, Mai C, Finkelstain J, Mehta S, Pons-Duran C, Menéndez C, Moraleda C, Rogers L, Daniels K, Green P.Crider K, et al.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2022 Feb 1;2(2022):CD014217. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD014217.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2022.Update in: [Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2026 Feb 18;2:CD014217. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD014217.pub2.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41705996/)PMID: 36321557Free PMC article.Updated. * [ Group-based parent training programmes for improving emotional and behavioural adjustment in young children. ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27478983/) Barlow J, Bergman H, Kornør H, Wei Y, Bennett C.Barlow J, et al.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016 Aug 1;2016(8):CD003680. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD003680.pub3.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016.PMID: 27478983Free PMC article. 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