---
title: "Primal emotional systems, early maladaptive schemas, and loneliness: Disconnection/Rejection media"
id: "plos-one-10-relationships-between-primal-emotional-systems-and-the-sense-of-loneliness-the"
canonical_url: "https://medichelpline.com/clinical-feed/plos-one-10-relationships-between-primal-emotional-systems-and-the-sense-of-loneliness-the"
content_type: "clinical_feed_article"
specialty: "General"
source_name: "PLOS ONE (Medicine)"
source_url: "https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0358449"
published_at: "2026-09-15T14:00:00.000Z"
evidence_level: "Journal Feed"
license: "CC-BY-NC-4.0 / Informational Use"
---
# Primal emotional systems, early maladaptive schemas, and loneliness: Disconnection/Rejection media
## Provenance & Clinical Metadata
- **Canonical URL:** https://medichelpline.com/clinical-feed/plos-one-10-relationships-between-primal-emotional-systems-and-the-sense-of-loneliness-the
- **Specialty:** [General](https://medichelpline.com/clinical-feed/general.md)
- **Primary Source:** PLOS ONE (Medicine)
- **Source URL:** [Original Journal Publication](https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0358449)
- **Published At:** 2026-09-15T14:00:00.000Z
- **Evidence Rating:** Journal Feed
## Executive GIST (TL;DR)
- The study examined links between Jaak Panksepp’s **primal emotional systems** and the subjective experience of **loneliness**, testing whether Jeffrey Young’s **early maladaptive schemas (EMS)** mediate these associations. - Sample: 323 adults aged 18–66 years (mean age 26.9) completed the Revised UCLA Loneliness Scale (R-UCLA), the Brief Affective Neuroscience Personality Scales (BANPS), and the Young Schema Questionnaire – Short Form (YSQ-S3-PL). - All EMS, schema domains, and emotional systems except **SEEKING** showed significant associations with reported loneliness; **SADNESS / PANIC / SEPARATION DISTRESS** and **FEAR** had the strongest direct relationships with loneliness. - Emotional–motivational systems were significantly associated with early maladaptive schemas; strongest system–schema links involved **SADNESS / PANIC / SEPARATION DISTRESS**, **FEAR**, **RAGE**, and **PLAY**. - Statistical mediation analyses indicated that schema domains significantly mediated relationships between primal emotional systems and loneliness for all systems except **SEEKING**. - The **Disconnection/Rejection** schema domain emerged as the main mediator across the tested models, implicating unmet needs for belonging, love, and relational safety as an intermediary between primal affective circuitry and perceived social isolation. - Authors conclude that early relational experiences and resulting maladaptive schemas may help explain why variation in subcortical emotional systems translates into differences in loneliness; data are publicly available via OSF. - Funding was provided by the International Society of Schema Therapy (Grant Award 2024); authors declared no competing interests.
## Clinical Analysis & Structured Key Points
Relationships between primal emotional systems and the sense of loneliness: The mediating role of early maladaptive schemas | PLOS One Browse Subject Areas ? Click through the PLOS taxonomy to find articles in your field. For more information about PLOS Subject Areas, click here . Article Authors Metrics Comments Media Coverage Reader Comments Figures Figures Abstract Background Within Panksepp’s neuroaffective theory, emotional–motivational systems constitute the biological basis for individual differences in the experience and regulation of emotions, which may be related to loneliness. At the same time, these systems may be associated with the formation of early maladaptive schemas which – according to Young’s concept – affect interpersonal functioning. The aim of this study was to examine the relationships between emotional–motivational systems and the sense of loneliness, and to determine whether early maladaptive schemas statistically mediate these relationships. Materials and methods The study involved 323 participants aged 18 to 66 years (mean age: M = 26.9). The following instruments were used: the Revised UCLA Loneliness Scale (R-UCLA), the Brief Form of the Affective Neuroscience Personality Scales (BANPS), and the Young Schema Questionnaire – Short Form (YSQ-S3-PL). Results All maladaptive schemas, schema domains, and systems – except for the SEEKING system – were significantly associated with the sense of loneliness. The strongest associations were observed for the SADNESS / PANIC / SEPARATION DISTRESS and FEAR systems. Emotional–motivational systems were also associated with early maladaptive schemas, with the strongest relationships found for four systems: SADNESS / PANIC / SEPARATION DISTRESS, FEAR, RAGE, and PLAY. Schema domains showed significant statistical mediation in the relationships between primal emotional systems and loneliness, except for the SEEKING system, where no mediation effect was found. The primary mediator in the tested relationships was the Disconnection/Rejection domain. Conclusions The findings suggest that early maladaptive schemas related to unmet needs for belonging, love, and relational safety are associated with the relationships between primal emotional systems and loneliness. In particular, the Disconnection/Rejection schema domain emerged as the most prominent statistical mediator in the analyzed models. Citation: Talarowska-Dublicka M, Gapińska A, Finogenow M (2026) Relationships between primal emotional systems and the sense of loneliness: The mediating role of early maladaptive schemas. PLoS One 21(9): e0358449. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0358449 Editor: Vilfredo De Pascalis, Sapienza University of Rome: Universita degli Studi di Roma La Sapienza, ITALY Received: August 27, 2025; Accepted: September 1, 2026; Published: September 15, 2026 Copyright: © 2026 Talarowska-Dublicka et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. Data Availability: All relevant data for this study are publicly available from the OSF repository ( https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/7UQE9) . Funding: This work was supported by the International Society of Schema Therapy [Grant Award 2024; No. 2024/ISST/1]. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist. Introduction The phenomenon of loneliness experienced by contemporary individuals has been receiving increasing attention in recent years [ 1 ]. It is, however, important to distinguish between loneliness – characterized by a negative affective tone – and solitude, which represents a conscious personal choice. In the literature, loneliness is defined as the subjective experience of lacking satisfying social relationships. It does not necessarily coincide with an actual (objective) absence of social bonds [ 2 ]. Solitude, by contrast, is a voluntary choice accompanied by a neutral or positive mood, often aimed at enhancing self-awareness, seeking rest, or even fostering creativity [ 3 ]. It is also regarded as one of the more effective strategies for reducing internal tension and discomfort [ 4 ]. The detrimental effects of prolonged loneliness on both physical and mental health are now well established [ 5 ]. Numerous large-scale meta-analyses have confirmed associations between perceived social isolation and an increased risk of cardiovascular disease [ 6 , 7 ], metabolic disorders [ 8 ], cancer [ 9 ], depressive disorders [ 10 ], and dementia [ 11 , 12 ]. Explanations for these associations have been sought in elevated cortisol levels characteristic of prolonged distress accompanying social isolation [ 13 , 14 ], pathological activity of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenocortical (HPA) axis [ 15 ], as well as oxidative stress and heightened inflammatory processes [ 16 ]. In our view, there remains a paucity of studies that integrate biological variables with diverse environmental factors contributing to social isolation, particularly when examined from a developmental perspective. Such a perspective could provide important insights into interindividual differences in the intensity of loneliness experienced. Taking this developmental aspect into account directs attention toward two potentially interconnected theoretical frameworks: Jaak Panksepp’s Affective Neuroscience Theory (ANT), which addresses the biological basis of loneliness [ 17 ], and Jeffrey Young’s theory of Early Maladaptive Schemas (EMS), which encompasses cognitive, environmental, relational, and developmental aspects. Panksepp’s theory identifies six emotional–motivational systems (networks of brain centers and their connections – neural circuits – that play a crucial role in basic emotional processes and their corresponding behaviors), located in the evolutionarily older, subcortical structures of the mammalian brain (both in humans and other animals) [ 18 ]. These systems are responsible for the activation and coordination of responses to stimuli from both the external and internal environment [ 19 ]. The emotional systems identified by Panksepp are: SEEKING (interest), RAGE (anger), FEAR (anxiety), CARE (nurturance), SADNESS / PANIC / SEPARATION DISTRESS (grief), and PLAY (playfulness / joy) [ 20 ]. Each system is activated through stimulation of distinct – though partially overlapping – brain regions. Typically, they operate in concert to enhance the adaptiveness of an individual’s feelings, thoughts, and behaviors [ 21 ]. Of these systems, the following appear to be of particular relevance to loneliness: SADNESS / PANIC / SEPARATION DISTRESS, SEEKING, CARE, and PLAY. The first of these is strongly activated when an individual experiences an actual loss of social relationships or feels abandoned or isolated. Its activation is linked to emotions such as fear of losing an attachment figure and the suffering that follows such loss. Anatomically, this system is associated with the anterior cingulate cortex, bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST), dorsomedial hypothalamus, preoptic area, ventral tegmental area (VTA), and periaqueductal gray matter (PAG) [ 22 ]. The neurotransmitters and neuromodulators involved in this system include opioids, prolactin, oxytocin, corticotropin-releasing hormone, and glutamic acid. According to Bonanno et al. [ 23 ], prolonged activation of the SADNESS / PANIC / SEPARATION DISTRESS system may be associated with chronic negative emotionality, transforming normal sadness into a clinical disorder associated with loneliness, social withdrawal, despair, avoidance of activity, persistent negative thoughts, and behavioral disturbances [ 23 ]. Davis and Montag [ 24 ] directly linked the experience of loneliness to activation of the neural circuits underlying this system. Overactivity of the SADNESS / PANIC / SEPARATION DISTRESS system during childhood – resulting from a persistent absence of close, stable bonds – may correspond to lasting changes in the limbic system, which in adulthood manifest as, on the one hand, heightened sensitivity to rejection and, on the other, fear of rejection in social relationships [ 25 ]. The second emotional system potentially relevant to the development of heightened loneliness is the SEEKING system (interest, curiosity, search for positive reinforcement). This system is responsible, among other functions, for generating motivation to explore the environment in conjunction with forming social connections. According to Panksepp, it is the primary and evolutionarily oldest emotional system among all affective systems [ 26 ]. Activation of the SEEKING system initiates intense learning processes – producing adaptive behaviors (basal ganglia) and knowledge (neocortex). It is associated with activity in structures including the nucleus accumbens, ventral tegmental area, and lateral hypothalamus–periaqueductal gray matter (PAG), as well as mesolimbic and mesocortical pathways [ 18 ]. The functioning of the SEEKING system is interlinked with the SADNESS / PANIC / SEPARATION DISTRESS system – when efforts to build satisfying social relationships prove unsuccessful, the former system is “switched off” (resulting in reduced motivation to initiate prosocial actions and decreased satisfaction with their occurrence) [ 27 ]. This process is a consequence of prolonged stress and ultimately manifests as behavioral withdrawal. Another effect of activating this interrelated network is stimulation of the RAGE system, whose operation is expressed in increased feelings of anger or rage and in aggressive behaviors directed toward the social environment [ 28 ]. Another system of significant importance for the development of loneliness is the CARE system. It governs responses associated with maternal and caregiving behaviors and with the formation of interpersonal bonds. This system is responsible for creating and maintaining social ties, as well as for nurturing and attachment. Proper functioning of this system is crucial for achieving and sustaining a sense of safety and belonging, whereas its dysfunction is strongly associated with the development and maintenance of loneliness [ 24 ]. It is particularly active during the early developmental period of childhood, with its functioning linked to the activation of opioid systems in the brain as well as the oxytocin and prolactin systems. The key anatomical regions of the human brain involved in this system include the anterior cingulate cortex, bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, preoptic area, ventral tegmental area, and periaqueductal gray matter (PAG) [ 29 ]. Specific early childhood experiences involving profound emotional deprivation, through suppression of CARE system activity, may be associated with higher levels of loneliness in adulthood [ 30 ]. The final neuroaffective system of potential relevance to the intensity of loneliness is the PLAY system. It is responsible for prosocial behaviors, adaptation to social norms and patterns, and the acquisition of social competence. Although it does not have direct adaptive significance for survival, it plays an important role in building social bonds. Its activation may be associated with lower levels of loneliness [ 31 ]. Emotionally, it is associated with the reduction of negative affect and modulates the functioning of other emotional systems. It is regulated primarily by dopamine, oxytocin, and cannabinoids. The brain regions characteristic of its activity include the dorsomedial midbrain, periaqueductal gray matter, posterior dorsomedial thalamic nuclei, and the parafascicular thalamic nucleus [ 19 ]. The remaining two emotional systems identified in Panksepp’s theory – FEAR and RAGE – do not appear, according to the literature, to be directly involved in the experience of loneliness; however, they may influence its intensity. The FEAR system is engaged in continuous monitoring of the environment, enabling threat avoidance. It is responsible for initiating escape and/or freezing responses and is regulated primarily by the serotonergic system. Emotionally, it is associated with feelings of fear and anxiety. The main brain regions linked to its functioning are the amygdala, anterior and medial hypothalamus, and periaqueductal gray matter [ 24 ]. Activation of this system may enhance avoidance and withdrawal tendencies, which, through social isolation, can in turn intensify the experience of loneliness [ 31 ]. The RAGE system was previously mentioned in relation to the SEEKING system. Emotionally, it is associated with feelings of anger and rage. Its activity is regulated by testosterone, substance P, noradrenaline, glutamate, acetylcholine, and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). The main brain regions characteristic of its activation include the amygdala, hypothalamus, stria terminalis, and periaqueductal gray matter [ 32 ]. Excessive or uncontrolled activation of this system may be associated with more frequent social conflicts and greater social isolation, both of which may be linked to higher levels of loneliness [ 31 ]. In Panksepp’s affective neuroscience framework, emotions are innate regulatory mechanisms, and the associated neural circuits ensure the most effective adaptation to environmental demands. According to Panksepp [ 33 ], emotions constitute a fundamental basis of personality, and personality assessment may provide insight into these subcortical affects. Moreover, differences in the reactivity of primary emotional systems may be understood as the foundation of individual differences in personality [ 29 ]. In Paul Ekman’s model of basic emotions, as integrated into Young’s early maladaptive schema theory, the activation of basic emotions is related to the satisfaction or frustration of early childhood needs. Attachment needs, when frustrated, typically evoke fear and sadness. Disgust or anger indicates frustration of the need for control, independence, or assertiveness. In contrast, joy signifies a satisfactory level of need fulfilment, regardless of its source [ 34 ]. According to Young’s theory, failure to meet core emotional needs – such as unconditional acceptance, closeness, and attachment; autonomy and identity; realistic limits; spontaneity and play; and free expression of emotions and needs – is associated in early childhood with the development of maladaptive coping styles in response to intense emotions resulting from these frustrations. These maladaptive coping styles persist into adulthood, contributing to a broad range of psychiatric symptoms [ 35 ]. From a neurobiological perspective, the formation of early maladaptive schemas is rooted in the primal emotional systems and their connections with the frontal cortex and limbic system, while from an environmental perspective, it is related to the nature of social experiences and the degree to which basic emotional needs are fulfilled [ 36 ]. Furthermore, Ekman and Cordaro [ 37 ] suggest that humans possess an “open affective program”, which is susceptible to and enriched by new information derived from experience. Once new data are integrated into the program, it functions automatically in accordance with biological predispositions [ 37 ]. These assumptions again allow for linking the neural basis of affective systems with the environmental experiences that shape early maladaptive schemas. Using a developmental perspective, the present study seeks to explore the biological underpinnings of loneliness, assessing the mediating role of early maladaptive schemas as a factor that may significantly influence the degree of discomfort experienced as a consequence of relational distress. Detailed analyses of the connections between early maladaptive schemas and emotional systems have been described in our previous work [ 38 , 39 ]. Based on the findings of our previous research [ 38 , 39 ], we hypothesize that the early maladaptive schema domain Disconnection/Rejection – associated with the unmet need for unconditional acceptance, closeness, and attachment – is the strongest mediator between primal emotional systems (particularly SADNESS / PANIC / SEPARATION DISTRESS, SEEKING, CARE, and PLAY) and the intensity of loneliness. Materials and methods The study included 323 participants aged 18–66 years (M = 26.9; SD = 10.7), of whom 56% (N = 180) were women, 43% (N = 140) were men, and 1% (N = 3) did not declare either option. The study was conducted remotely using the Microsoft Forms platform. Participants were recruited by students of the Institute of Psychology at the University of Lodz, Poland, between 1 st March 2023 and 31 st January 2024 through announcements posted in publicly accessible social media groups. Inclusion criteria were: age over 18 years, no history of diagnosed mental disorders (participants who declared current or past treatment for mental disorders were not allowed to complete the remaining parts of the study and were excluded from further participation), and provision of informed consent to participate in the study. The sociodemographic survey included a question regarding past and current psychiatric treatment history. Individuals who responded affirmatively to this question were excluded from the study. The characteristics of the study group are presented in Table 1 . Download: PNG larger image TIFF original image Table 1. Characteristics of the study group by age, place of residence, and education. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0358449.t001 The study protocol was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the Medical University of Lodz (decision no. RNN/92/22/KE, dated 14 June 2022). Only adults participated in the study. Each participant provided informed written consent to participate in the study. After providing informed consent, each participant completed an online survey consisting of a demographic questionnaire, the R-UCLA scale, the BANPS questionnaire, and the YSQ-S3-PL questionnaire. Instruments used in the study: a. Revised UCLA Loneliness Scale (R-UCLA) The Revised UCLA Loneliness Scale [ 40 ] is a tool used to assess loneliness as a trait. It demonstrates high theoretical validity and reliability [ 41 ]. The instrument consists of 20 items, grouped into three factors (subscales). The first subscale, Intimate Others, contains ten items assessing the respondent’s feelings in relation to connection with a group or isolation from others. Higher scores indicate a stronger sense of loneliness expressed as a lack of close relationships and separation from others. The second subscale, Social Others, consists of five items reflecting loneliness in terms of social contact with people in the immediate environment or the group as a whole. High scores indicate the absence of people with whom the respondent feels closely connected, who truly understand them, and the lack of a social network or closeness in relationships. The third subscale, Belonging and Affiliation, consists of five items measuring integration with and belonging to a group, referring to the absence of group identity and community bonds, weaker social ties, and the perception of oneself more as an individual than as part of a group. Given the complexity of the analyses and the number of variables in the present study, the total score from all three subscales was used in the analyses as an indicator of global loneliness (the higher the score, the greater the sense of loneliness). In the current sample, Cronbach’s α was .92. b. Brief Form of the Affective Neuroscience Personality Scales (BANPS) Originally developed by Barrett et al. [ 42 ], this method measures the intensity of activity in each of the six neuroaffective emotional systems based on the respondent’s self-report. The BANPS assesses personality traits reflecting
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