---
title: "Polystyrene microplastics increase Clostridioides difficile biofilms and reduce antibiotic suscept"
id: "pubmed-42535848"
canonical_url: "https://medichelpline.com/clinical-feed/pubmed-42535848"
content_type: "clinical_feed_article"
specialty: "Infectious Disease"
source_name: "PubMed / NCBI"
source_url: "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/"
doi: "10.1128/aem.01168-26"
published_at: "2026-08-19T00:00:00.000Z"
evidence_level: "Journal Article"
license: "CC-BY-NC-4.0 / Informational Use"
---
# Polystyrene microplastics increase Clostridioides difficile biofilms and reduce antibiotic suscept
## Provenance & Clinical Metadata
- **Canonical URL:** https://medichelpline.com/clinical-feed/pubmed-42535848
- **Specialty:** [Infectious Disease](https://medichelpline.com/clinical-feed/infectious-disease.md)
- **Primary Source:** PubMed / NCBI
- **Source URL:** [Original Journal Publication](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/)
- **DOI:** [10.1128/aem.01168-26](https://doi.org/10.1128%2Faem.01168-26)
- **Published At:** 2026-08-19T00:00:00.000Z
- **Evidence Rating:** Journal Article
## Executive GIST (TL;DR)
- The study examined how **polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs)** affect the pathogenicity, biofilm formation, and antibiotic susceptibility of **Clostridioides difficile (CD)**. - Exposure to PS-MPs at concentrations from **0–400 μg/mL** induced intracellular oxidative stress in CD, which promoted bacterial proliferation and **biofilm formation**. - PS-MPs upregulated quorum-sensing genes (**agrD**, **luxS**) and increased secretion of the autoinducer **AI-2**, correlating with enhanced bacterial motility. - PS-MPs exposure elevated expression of virulence and **sporulation** genes including **Spo0A**, and increased cytotoxicity to intestinal epithelial cell lines (**HT-29** and **Caco-2**). - Antimicrobial susceptibility testing showed both short-term (48 h) and long-term (20 d) PS-MPs exposure increased the IC50 of CD for seven antibiotics. - Notably, long-term exposure to **100 μg/mL** PS-MPs produced a **2.42-fold** increase in the IC50 for **vancomycin**, accompanied by upregulation of resistance genes (**tetW**, **gyrA**, **gyrB**). - Overall, the findings link environmental **microplastic pollution** to increased CD pathogenicity and **antibiotic resistance**, mediated by activation of quorum-sensing and enhanced biofilm formation. - The study suggests microplastics may both act as vectors and directly modulate bacterial behavior, potentially worsening CDI recurrence risk and complicating therapy.
## Clinical Analysis & Structured Key Points
Clipboard, Search History, and several other advanced features are temporarily unavailable. [ Skip to main page content ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/#article-details) ![U.S. flag](https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/coreutils/uswds/img/favicons/favicon-57.png) An official website of the United States government Here's how you know ![Dot gov](https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/coreutils/uswds/img/icon-dot-gov.svg) **The .gov means it’s official.** Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site. ![Https](https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/coreutils/uswds/img/icon-https.svg) **The site is secure.** The **https://** ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely. [ ![NIH NLM Logo](https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/coreutils/nwds/img/logos/AgencyLogo.svg) ](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/) [Log in](https://account.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?back_url=https%3A%2F%2Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2F42535848%2F) Show account info Close #### Account Logged in as: **username** * [Dashboard](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/myncbi/) * [Publications](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/myncbi/collections/bibliography/) * [Account settings](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/account/settings/) * [Log out](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/account/signout/?back_url=https%3A//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/) [Access keys](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/guide/browsers/#ncbi_accesskeys) [NCBI Homepage](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov) [MyNCBI Homepage](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/myncbi/) [Main Content](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/#maincontent) [Main Navigation](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/) [ ![pubmed logo](https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/af7de7da-df5d-41c6-8de4-8c266af8ccfb/core/images/pubmed-logo-blue.svg) ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/) [ ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/ "Show search bar") Search: [](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/ "Clear search input")Search [Advanced](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/advanced/) [ Clipboard ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/clipboard/) [ User Guide ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/help/) Save Email Send to * [ Clipboard ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/) * [My Bibliography](https://account.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?back_url=https%3A%2F%2Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2F42535848%2F%23open-bibliography-panel) * [Collections](https://account.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?back_url=https%3A%2F%2Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2F42535848%2F%23open-collections-panel) * [Citation manager](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/) Display options Display options Format Abstract PubMed PMID ## Save citation to file Format: Summary (text) PubMed PMID Abstract (text) CSV Create file Cancel ## Email citation Email address has not been verified. Go to [ My NCBI account settings ](https://account.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/settings/) to confirm your email and then refresh this page. To: Subject: Body: Format: Summary Summary (text) Abstract Abstract (text) MeSH and other data Send email Cancel ### Add to Collections * Create a new collection * Add to an existing collection Name your collection: Name must be less than 100 characters Choose a collection: Unable to load your collection due to an error [Please try again](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/) Add Cancel ### Add to My Bibliography * My Bibliography Unable to load your delegates due to an error [Please try again](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/) Add Cancel ## Your saved search Name of saved search: Search terms: [Test search terms](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/) Would you like email updates of new search results? Saved Search Alert Radio Buttons * Yes * No Email: ([change](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/account/settings/)) Frequency: Monthly Weekly Daily Which day? The first Sunday The first Monday The first Tuesday The first Wednesday The first Thursday The first Friday The first Saturday The first day The first weekday Which day? Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Report format: Summary Summary (text) Abstract Abstract (text) PubMed Send at most: 1 item 5 items 10 items 20 items 50 items 100 items 200 items Send even when there aren't any new results Optional text in email: Save Cancel ## Create a file for external citation management software Create file Cancel ## Your RSS Feed Name of RSS Feed: Number of items displayed: 5 10 15 20 50 100 Create RSS Cancel RSS Link Copy ### Full text links [![Atypon full text link](https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/corehtml/query/egifs/https:--journals.asm.org-pb-assets-pubmed-pubmed_AEM.png) Atypon ](https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/aem.01168-26?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%20%200pubmed "See full text options at Atypon") [ Full text links ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/) ### Actions Cite Collections Add to Collections * Create a new collection * Add to an existing collection Name your collection: Name must be less than 100 characters Choose a collection: Unable to load your collection due to an error [Please try again](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/) Add Cancel Permalink Permalink Copy Display options Display options Format Abstract PubMed PMID ### Page navigation * [ Title & authors ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/#heading) * [ Abstract ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/#abstract) * [ Conflict of interest statement ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/#conflict-of-interest) * [Similar articles](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/#similar) * [ MeSH terms ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/#mesh-terms) * [ Substances ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/#substances) * [Related information](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/#related-links) * [ Grants and funding ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/#grants) * [ LinkOut - more resources ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/#linkout) Title & authors Abstract Conflict of interest statement Similar articles MeSH terms Substances Related information Grants and funding LinkOut - more resources Appl Environ Microbiol Actions * [ Search in PubMed ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=%22Appl+Environ+Microbiol%22%5Bjour%5D&sort=date&sort_order=desc) * [ Search in NLM Catalog ](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nlmcatalog?term=%22Appl+Environ+Microbiol%22%5BTitle+Abbreviation%5D) * [ Add to Search ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/) . 2026 Aug 19;92(8):e0116826. doi: 10.1128/aem.01168-26. Epub 2026 Jul 31. # Polystyrene microplastics facilitate _Clostridioides difficile_ biofilm formation and attenuate antibiotic susceptibility [Xilong Deng](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=Deng+X&cauthor_id=42535848)[ 1 ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/#full-view-affiliation-1 "State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, School of Food Science and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Normal University, Qixia, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China."), [Chen Yang](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=Yang+C&cauthor_id=42535848)[ 1 ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/#full-view-affiliation-1 "State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, School of Food Science and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Normal University, Qixia, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China."), [Lu Chen](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=Chen+L&cauthor_id=42535848)[ 1 ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/#full-view-affiliation-1 "State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, School of Food Science and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Normal University, Qixia, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China."), [Ruijia Chen](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=Chen+R&cauthor_id=42535848)[ 1 ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/#full-view-affiliation-1 "State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, School of Food Science and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Normal University, Qixia, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China."), [Jingpeng Yang](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=Yang+J&cauthor_id=42535848)[ 1 ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/#full-view-affiliation-1 "State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, School of Food Science and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Normal University, Qixia, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China.") Affiliations Expand ### Affiliation * 1 State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, School of Food Science and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Normal University, Qixia, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China. * PMID: **42535848** * DOI: [ 10.1128/aem.01168-26 ](https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.01168-26) Item in Clipboard # Polystyrene microplastics facilitate _Clostridioides difficile_ biofilm formation and attenuate antibiotic susceptibility Xilong Deng et al. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2026. Show details Display options Display options Format Abstract PubMed PMID Appl Environ Microbiol Actions * [ Search in PubMed ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=%22Appl+Environ+Microbiol%22%5Bjour%5D&sort=date&sort_order=desc) * [ Search in NLM Catalog ](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nlmcatalog?term=%22Appl+Environ+Microbiol%22%5BTitle+Abbreviation%5D) * [ Add to Search ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/) . 2026 Aug 19;92(8):e0116826. doi: 10.1128/aem.01168-26. Epub 2026 Jul 31. ### Authors [Xilong Deng](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=Deng+X&cauthor_id=42535848)[ 1 ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/#short-view-affiliation-1 "State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, School of Food Science and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Normal University, Qixia, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China."), [Chen Yang](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=Yang+C&cauthor_id=42535848)[ 1 ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/#short-view-affiliation-1 "State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, School of Food Science and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Normal University, Qixia, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China."), [Lu Chen](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=Chen+L&cauthor_id=42535848)[ 1 ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/#short-view-affiliation-1 "State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, School of Food Science and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Normal University, Qixia, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China."), [Ruijia Chen](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=Chen+R&cauthor_id=42535848)[ 1 ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/#short-view-affiliation-1 "State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, School of Food Science and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Normal University, Qixia, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China."), [Jingpeng Yang](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=Yang+J&cauthor_id=42535848)[ 1 ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/#short-view-affiliation-1 "State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, School of Food Science and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Normal University, Qixia, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China.") ### Affiliation * 1 State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, School of Food Science and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Normal University, Qixia, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China. * PMID: **42535848** * DOI: [ 10.1128/aem.01168-26 ](https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.01168-26) Item in Clipboard Full text links Cite Display options Display options Format Abstract PubMed PMID ## Abstract _Clostridioides difficile_ infection (CDI) constitutes a critical global public health challenge, with its high recurrence rates intrinsically linked to spore germination, biofilm formation, and antibiotic resistance. Although microplastics are recognized as emerging foodborne contaminants, their potential to exacerbate the risk of CDI recurrence remains largely unexplored. This study systematically elucidates the impact of polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs) on _C. difficile_ (CD) pathogenicity, biofilm dynamics, and antibiotic resistance. Exposure to PS-MPs (0-400 μg/mL) induced intracellular oxidative stress, thereby facilitating bacterial proliferation and biofilm formation. Concurrently, PS-MPs upregulated the expression of quorum-sensing genes (_agrD_ , _luxS_) and enhanced AI-2 secretion, which subsequently augmented bacterial motility. Furthermore, PS-MPs exposure significantly elevated the expression of virulence and sporulation genes (e.g., _Spo0A_), intensifying cytotoxicity toward intestinal epithelial cells (HT-29 and Caco-2). Critically, antimicrobial susceptibility testing demonstrated that both short-term (48 h) and long-term (20 d) PS-MPs exposure significantly increased the half-inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) of CD against seven antibiotics. Notably, long-term exposure to 100 μg/mL PS-MPs resulted in a 2.42-fold increase in the IC₅₀ for vancomycin, concomitant with the upregulation of resistance genes (_tetW_ , _gyrA_ , and _gyrB_). Collectively, these findings indicate that PS-MPs exposure potentiates CD pathogenicity and antibiotic resistance by activating the quorum-sensing system and facilitating biofilm formation. This study provides novel evidence linking environmental pollutants to CDI epidemiology, suggesting that microplastic pollution may compound the clinical recurrence risk and therapeutic challenges associated with CDI.IMPORTANCEIt is well established that both microplastics and _C. difficile_ (CD) can enter the human body through the food chain, where they pose significant health risks. However, the mechanistic interactions between these two factors remain poorly understood. In this study, we provide novel insights into this interaction by demonstrating that polystyrene microplastics induce intracellular oxidative stress in CD, thereby activating quorum-sensing pathways and promoting biofilm formation. These events collectively enhance bacterial proliferation, motility, and virulence expression. More importantly, microplastic exposure substantially increases the tolerance of CD to multiple clinically relevant antibiotics, including vancomycin, an effect that is closely associated with the upregulation of key antibiotic resistance genes. Collectively, these findings reveal that environmental microplastic pollution not only serves as a physical vector for pathogen dissemination but also exacerbates the therapeutic challenges and recurrence risk associated with CD infections through direct modulation of bacterial pathogenicity and antimicrobial resistance. **Keywords:** Clostridioides difficile infection; antibiotic resistance; biofilm; pathogenicity; polystyrene microplastics. [PubMed Disclaimer](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/disclaimer/) ## Conflict of interest statement The authors declare no conflict of interest. ## Similar articles * [ The _vanR Cd_ Mutation 343A>G, Resulting in a Thr115Ala Substitution, Is Associated with an Elevated Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) of Vancomycin in Clostridioides difficile Clinical Isolates from Florida. ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37125917/) Wickramage I, Peng Z, Chakraborty S, Harmanus C, Kuijper EJ, Alrabaa S, Smits WK, Sun X.Wickramage I, et al.Microbiol Spectr. 2023 Jun 15;11(3):e0377722. doi: 10.1128/spectrum.03777-22. Epub 2023 May 1.Microbiol Spectr. 2023.PMID: 37125917Free PMC article. * [ Review of the Impact of Biofilm Formation on Recurrent _Clostridioides difficile_ Infection. ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37894183/) Rubio-Mendoza D, Martínez-Meléndez A, Maldonado-Garza HJ, Córdova-Fletes C, Garza-González E.Rubio-Mendoza D, et al.Microorganisms. 2023 Oct 10;11(10):2525. doi: 10.3390/microorganisms11102525.Microorganisms. 2023.PMID: 37894183Free PMC article.Review. * [ [Influence of Polystyrene Microplastics on the Formation and Structural Change of _Pseudomonas aeruginosa_ Biofilm]. ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37699825/) Tao H, Yu D, Yang L, Chen YY, Zhou LQ, Luo YX.Tao H, et al.Huan Jing Ke Xue. 2023 Sep 8;44(9):5071-5079. doi: 10.13227/j.hjkx.202209057.Huan Jing Ke Xue. 2023.PMID: 37699825Chinese. * [ Multiple factors modulate biofilm formation by the anaerobic pathogen Clostridium difficile. ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23175653/) Ðapa T, Leuzzi R, Ng YK, Baban ST, Adamo R, Kuehne SA, Scarselli M, Minton NP, Serruto D, Unnikrishnan M.Ðapa T, et al.J Bacteriol. 2013 Feb;195(3):545-55. doi: 10.1128/JB.01980-12. Epub 2012 Nov 21.J Bacteriol. 2013.PMID: 23175653Free PMC article. * [ Interaction between microplastic biofilm formation and antibiotics: Effect of microplastic biofilm and its driving mechanisms on antibiotic resistance gene. ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37517232/) Zheng Z, Huang Y, Liu L, Wang L, Tang J.Zheng Z, et al.J Hazard Mater. 2023 Oct 5;459:132099. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.132099. Epub 2023 Jul 21.J Hazard Mater. 2023.PMID: 37517232Review. [ See all similar articles ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?linkname=pubmed_pubmed&from_uid=42535848) ## MeSH terms * Anti-Bacterial Agents* / pharmacology Actions * [ Search in PubMed ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=%22Anti-Bacterial+Agents%2Fpharmacology%22%5BMAJR%5D&sort=date&sort_order=desc) * [ Search in MeSH ](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/mesh?term=Anti-Bacterial+Agents) * [ Add to Search ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/) * Biofilms* / drug effects Actions * [ Search in PubMed ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=%22Biofilms%2Fdrug+effects%22%5BMAJR%5D&sort=date&sort_order=desc) * [ Search in MeSH ](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/mesh?term=Biofilms) * [ Add to Search ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/) * Biofilms* / growth & development Actions * [ Search in PubMed ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=%22Biofilms%2Fgrowth+and+development%22%5BMAJR%5D&sort=date&sort_order=desc) * [ Search in MeSH ](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/mesh?term=Biofilms) * [ Add to Search ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/) * Clostridioides difficile* / drug effects Actions * [ Search in PubMed ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=%22Clostridioides+difficile%2Fdrug+effects%22%5BMAJR%5D&sort=date&sort_order=desc) * [ Search in MeSH ](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/mesh?term=Clostridioides+difficile) * [ Add to Search ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/) * Clostridioides difficile* / genetics Actions * [ Search in PubMed ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=%22Clostridioides+difficile%2Fgenetics%22%5BMAJR%5D&sort=date&sort_order=desc) * [ Search in MeSH ](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/mesh?term=Clostridioides+difficile) * [ Add to Search ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/) * Clostridioides difficile* / pathogenicity Actions * [ Search in PubMed ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=%22Clostridioides+difficile%2Fpathogenicity%22%5BMAJR%5D&sort=date&sort_order=desc) * [ Search in MeSH ](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/mesh?term=Clostridioides+difficile) * [ Add to Search ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/) * Clostridioides difficile* / physiology Actions * [ Search in PubMed ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=%22Clostridioides+difficile%2Fphysiology%22%5BMAJR%5D&sort=date&sort_order=desc) * [ Search in MeSH ](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/mesh?term=Clostridioides+difficile) * [ Add to Search ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/) * Drug Resistance, Bacterial* Actions * [ Search in PubMed ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=%22Drug+Resistance%2C+Bacterial%22%5BMAJR%5D&sort=date&sort_order=desc) * [ Search in MeSH ](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/mesh?term=Drug+Resistance%2C+Bacterial) * [ Add to Search ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/) * Humans Actions * [ Search in PubMed ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=%22Humans%22%5BMeSH%5D&sort=date&sort_order=desc) * [ Search in MeSH ](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/mesh?term=Humans) * [ Add to Search ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42535848/) * Microbia
## Related Clinical Research

- [Early oral fecal microbiota transplantation versus vancomycin or fidaxomicin for first or first-re](https://medichelpline.com/clinical-feed/bmj-open-13-fecal-microbiota-transplantation-versus-vancomycin-or-fidaxomicin-in.md)
- [Citrobacter freundii Identified as Pathogen Causing Disease in Farmed Singhi (Heteropneustes fossi](https://medichelpline.com/clinical-feed/pubmed-42424302.md) (DOI: 10.1093/jahafs/vsag006)
- [Vancomycin–Formyl Peptide Conjugate Binding to Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Measured by Flow Cy](https://medichelpline.com/clinical-feed/pubmed-42555848.md) (DOI: 10.1002/cbic.70495)
- [Replace the term “red man syndrome” with vancomycin infusion reaction in clinical use](https://medichelpline.com/clinical-feed/cmaj-5-red-man-syndrome-should-never-be-used-to-describe-vancomycin-infusion-reaction.md)
- [Fresh fruit surfaces as reservoirs of multidrug-resistant, biofilm-forming Enterococcus faecalis](https://medichelpline.com/clinical-feed/plos-one-3-fresh-fruit-surface-a-potential-source-for-multidrug-resistant-biofilm-forming.md)

## Navigation
- [← Back to Infectious Disease Feed](https://medichelpline.com/clinical-feed/infectious-disease.md)
- [← All Clinical Specialties](https://medichelpline.com/clinical-feed.md)
## Medical & Regulatory Disclaimer

> [!CAUTION]
> MedicHelpline content is structured for research, educational, and professional discovery purposes. It does not constitute individual medical advice, clinical diagnosis, or treatment recommendations.
> Always verify dosing, contraindications, and regulatory alerts against official product labeling and primary regulatory sources before clinical decision-making.