---
title: "Executive function development from 2.5 to 6.5 years and the impact of COVID-19"
id: "pubmed-41739037"
canonical_url: "https://medichelpline.com/clinical-feed/pubmed-41739037"
content_type: "clinical_feed_article"
specialty: "Pediatrics"
source_name: "PubMed / NCBI"
source_url: "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41739037/"
doi: "10.1093/chidev/aacag002"
published_at: "2026-08-29T00:00:00.000Z"
evidence_level: "Journal Article"
license: "CC-BY-NC-4.0 / Informational Use"
---
# Executive function development from 2.5 to 6.5 years and the impact of COVID-19
## Provenance & Clinical Metadata
- **Canonical URL:** https://medichelpline.com/clinical-feed/pubmed-41739037
- **Specialty:** [Pediatrics](https://medichelpline.com/clinical-feed/pediatrics.md)
- **Primary Source:** PubMed / NCBI
- **Source URL:** [Original Journal Publication](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41739037/)
- **DOI:** [10.1093/chidev/aacag002](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fchidev%2Faacag002)
- **Published At:** 2026-08-29T00:00:00.000Z
- **Evidence Rating:** Journal Article
## Executive GIST (TL;DR)
- Longitudinal study of 139 children (71 girls) tracked from age **2.5 to 6.5 years** using the **Minnesota Executive Function Scale** to measure executive function (EF). 94 families first attended prior to the COVID-19 pandemic. - Overall, children's **EF increased consistently** across the 2.5–6.5 year period, indicating developmental gains in early childhood. - Individual differences in EF were **stable longitudinally**, meaning rank-order differences between children persisted across time points. - Maternal education predicted EF: children whose mothers had higher levels of education had **higher EF scores** across assessments. - Children tested **1–3 years after the first COVID-19 lockdown** exhibited **greater variation in individual differences** over time compared with earlier-tested children. - Growth-curve analyses on children assessed 3–4 times showed that children who were in **preschool during the first lockdown** had **steeper EF growth trajectories** than children who were in the first year of primary school at the start of the pandemic. - The authors interpret slower EF gains among children who had recently started primary school as likely linked to **disruptions to early schooling and social routines** during a critical adjustment period. - The study used a repeated-measures design and longitudinal modelling to examine trajectories; the report declares **no conflicts of interest** and lists NIH grants among funding sources. - Keywords and focus areas include **COVID-19**, cognition, developmental trajectories, and **executive function** in early childhood. - Details such as exact statistical estimates, effect sizes, and full methodological specifics are contained in the full text and were not reported in the PubMed abstract.
## Clinical Analysis & Structured Key Points
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Affiliations Expand ### Affiliations * 1 School of Psychology, Lancaster University, Lancaster, United Kingdom. * 2 Schoool of Psychology, University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom. * 3 School of Psychology, Durham University, Durham, United Kingdom. * PMID: **41739037** * DOI: [ 10.1093/chidev/aacag002 ](https://doi.org/10.1093/chidev/aacag002) Free article Item in Clipboard # Tracking the trajectory of executive function from 2.5 to 6.5 years of age and the impact of COVID-19 Eleanor Johns et al. Child Dev. 2026. Free article Show details Display options Display options Format Abstract PubMed PMID Child Dev Actions * [ Search in PubMed ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=%22Child+Dev%22%5Bjour%5D&sort=date&sort_order=desc) * [ Search in NLM Catalog ](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nlmcatalog?term=%22Child+Dev%22%5BTitle+Abbreviation%5D) * [ Add to Search ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41739037/) . 2026 Aug 29;97(5):1654-1670. doi: 10.1093/chidev/aacag002. ### Authors [Eleanor Johns](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=Johns+E&cauthor_id=41739037)[ 1 ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41739037/#short-view-affiliation-1 "School of Psychology, Lancaster University, Lancaster, United Kingdom.")[ 2 ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41739037/#short-view-affiliation-2 "Schoool of Psychology, University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom."), [Samuel H Forbes](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=Forbes+SH&cauthor_id=41739037)[ 3 ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41739037/#short-view-affiliation-3 "School of Psychology, Durham University, Durham, United Kingdom."), [Lourdes M Delgado Reyes](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=Delgado+Reyes+LM&cauthor_id=41739037)[ 2 ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41739037/#short-view-affiliation-2 "Schoool of Psychology, University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom."), [Charlotte Buck](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=Buck+C&cauthor_id=41739037)[ 2 ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41739037/#short-view-affiliation-2 "Schoool of Psychology, University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom."), [John P Spencer](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=Spencer+JP&cauthor_id=41739037)[ 2 ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41739037/#short-view-affiliation-2 "Schoool of Psychology, University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom.") ### Affiliations * 1 School of Psychology, Lancaster University, Lancaster, United Kingdom. * 2 Schoool of Psychology, University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom. * 3 School of Psychology, Durham University, Durham, United Kingdom. * PMID: **41739037** * DOI: [ 10.1093/chidev/aacag002 ](https://doi.org/10.1093/chidev/aacag002) Item in Clipboard Full text links Cite Display options Display options Format Abstract PubMed PMID ## Abstract Given the significance of executive function (EF) for longer-term outcomes, it is important to understand the trajectory of EF in childhood and how COVID-19 influenced this trajectory. 139 (71 girls) children were examined longitudinally from 2.5 to 6.5 years using the Minnesota Executive Function Scale. Individual differences in EF abilities were stable longitudinally, and children with a more highly educated mother had higher EF scores. Children tested 1-3 years after the first lockdown showed greater variation in individual differences over time. Additional analyses examined linear growth curves for children assessed 3-4 times from 2.5 to 6.5 years. Children who were in preschool during the first lockdown had steeper growth curve trajectories than children in the first year of primary school. **Keywords:** COVID-19; cognition; developmental trajectories; executive function. ## Plain language summary We studied children's self-regulation skills across early childhood focusing on executive functions. This was disrupted by COVID-19, prompting us to investigate COVID-19's influence on children's executive functions. One hundred and thirty-nine (71 girls, 68 boys) children visited our lab multiple times from 2.5 to 6.5 years of age, with 94 families first attending before COVID-19. Using the Minnesota Executive Function Scale, we found children's executive functioning increased consistently from 2.5 to 6.5 years of age but was affected by COVID-19. We found children who had already started primary school showed slower gains in executive functioning relative to younger children who were in preschools at the start of the pandemic, likely reflecting disruptions to early schooling and social routines during this critical adjustment period. © The Author(s) 2026. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Society for Research in Child Development. [PubMed Disclaimer](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/disclaimer/) ## Conflict of interest statement Conflicts of interest: The authors declare no potential conflict of interests. ## Similar articles * [ Personality Theories. ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42475469/) Gallios JM, Iyer V, Kaylor LE.Gallios JM, et al.2026 Jun 20. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2026 Jan–.2026 Jun 20. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2026 Jan–.PMID: 42475469Free Books & Documents. * [ From terrible twos to sassy sixes: The development of vocabulary and executive functioning across early childhood. ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37042169/) Bruce M, Savla J, Bell MA.Bruce M, et al.Dev Sci. 2023 Nov;26(6):e13396. doi: 10.1111/desc.13396. Epub 2023 Apr 12.Dev Sci. 2023.PMID: 37042169Free PMC article. * [ Dynamic Field Theory of Executive Function: Identifying Early Neurocognitive Markers. ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39628288/) McCraw A, Sullivan J, Lowery K, Eddings R, Heim HR, Buss AT.McCraw A, et al.Monogr Soc Res Child Dev. 2024 Dec;89(3):7-109. doi: 10.1111/mono.12478.Monogr Soc Res Child Dev. 2024.PMID: 39628288Free PMC article. * [ The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on young children's executive function: A longitudinal, population-based study. ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41874340/) Jones SM, Dermody CM, Mozaffari AF, Acosta J, Lesaux NK.Jones SM, et al.Child Dev. 2026 Aug 29;97(5):1594-1605. doi: 10.1093/chidev/aacag003.Child Dev. 2026.PMID: 41874340 * [ COVID-19-induced educational disruptions and children's executive functioning: A longitudinal cohort study. ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41379657/) Wright A, Martin A, Pollak SD, Phillips DA, Stein GL, Johnson AD.Wright A, et al.Dev Psychol. 2026 Apr;62(4):830-847. doi: 10.1037/dev0002113. Epub 2025 Dec 11.Dev Psychol. 2026.PMID: 41379657Free PMC article. 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