---
title: "Physical activity, rumination, mindfulness, and reaction-time executive function in late adolescen"
id: "plos-one-13-physical-activity-and-executive-function-in-adolescents-dual-rumination"
canonical_url: "https://medichelpline.com/clinical-feed/plos-one-13-physical-activity-and-executive-function-in-adolescents-dual-rumination"
content_type: "clinical_feed_article"
specialty: "Pediatrics"
source_name: "PLOS ONE (Medicine)"
source_url: "https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0357384"
published_at: "2026-09-01T14:00:00.000Z"
evidence_level: "Journal Feed"
license: "CC-BY-NC-4.0 / Informational Use"
---
# Physical activity, rumination, mindfulness, and reaction-time executive function in late adolescen
## Provenance & Clinical Metadata
- **Canonical URL:** https://medichelpline.com/clinical-feed/plos-one-13-physical-activity-and-executive-function-in-adolescents-dual-rumination
- **Specialty:** [Pediatrics](https://medichelpline.com/clinical-feed/pediatrics.md)
- **Primary Source:** PLOS ONE (Medicine)
- **Source URL:** [Original Journal Publication](https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0357384)
- **Published At:** 2026-09-01T14:00:00.000Z
- **Evidence Rating:** Journal Feed
## Executive GIST (TL;DR)
- The study examined associations among **physical activity (PA_total)**, two forms of **rumination** (intrusive rumination [IR] and deliberate rumination [DR]), **mindfulness**, and a reaction-time-based executive-function composite (**EF_RT**) in late adolescents. - Cross-sectional sample: N = 450 late adolescents (266 males), aged 17–19 years, who completed self-report measures of PA, rumination, and mindfulness plus computerized cognitive tasks. - **EF_RT** was computed from standardized reaction-time indicators from Flanker, 2-back, and More–Odd Shifting tasks; lower EF_RT indicates better (faster) RT-based performance. - Structural equation models tested parallel indirect pathways from PA_total to EF_RT via IR and DR, with gender included as a covariate; bias-corrected bootstrapping (5,000 resamples) estimated indirect and conditional indirect effects. - Main finding: PA_total had significant positive total and direct associations with EF_RT—higher PA_total associated with higher EF_RT scores, meaning slower or less efficient RT-based task performance (an unexpected direction for RT-based measures). - Both **intrusive rumination (IR)** and **deliberate rumination (DR)** served as significant parallel indirect pathways linking PA_total to EF_RT. - **Mindfulness** moderated both the PA_total → IR path and the IR → EF_RT path; the conditional indirect effect via IR varied across mindfulness levels. - Authors emphasize these are cross-sectional associations involving RT-based executive-function performance; positive coefficients with EF_RT reflect longer reaction times or larger RT costs, not improved EF ability. - Data, figures, and tables supporting analyses are provided in the manuscript and supporting information; authors note caution in interpreting directional or causal implications.
## Clinical Analysis & Structured Key Points
Physical activity and executive function in adolescents: Dual rumination pathways and mindfulness moderation | PLOS One Browse Subject Areas ? Click through the PLOS taxonomy to find articles in your field. For more information about PLOS Subject Areas, click here . Article Authors Metrics Comments Media Coverage Reader Comments Figures Figures Abstract Background Late adolescence is a developmental period in which executive functions are relatively consolidated but remain sensitive to behavioral and environmental influences. Physical activity (PA) has been associated with executive-function outcomes, but the psychological factors that may be related to this association remain unclear. Objective: This study examined whether PA_total was associated with a reaction-time-based executive-function composite (EF_RT) through intrusive rumination (IR) and deliberate rumination (DR), and whether mindfulness moderated the PA_total → IR and IR → EF_RT associations. Methods Late adolescents (N = 450; 266 males; aged 17–19 years) completed measures of PA, rumination, and mindfulness. EF_RT was derived from standardized RT-based indicators from computerized Flanker, 2-back, and More–Odd Shifting tasks. Lower EF_RT values indicate better RT-based task performance. Structural equation models were used to test parallel indirect associations and observed-variable interaction terms, with gender included as a covariate. Bias-corrected bootstrapping with 5,000 resamples was used to estimate indirect and conditional indirect associations. Results PA_total showed significant positive total and direct associations with EF_RT, indicating that higher PA_total was associated with higher RT-based scores, that is, slower or less efficient RT-based task performance. Significant indirect associations were observed through both IR and DR. Mindfulness moderated the PA_total → IR and IR → EF_RT associations, and the conditional indirect association through IR varied across levels of mindfulness. Because EF_RT is a reaction-time-based composite, positive coefficients involving EF_RT indicate higher RT-based scores, reflecting longer reaction times or larger RT costs, rather than better EF ability. Conclusions PA_total, rumination, mindfulness, and EF_RT were interrelated in late adolescents. The findings should be interpreted as cross-sectional associations involving RT-based executive-function performance, including an unexpected positive PA_total–EF_RT association indicating slower or less efficient RT-based performance, rather than as evidence of causal effects on EF ability. Citation: Wang S, Lu M, Yang Y, Lu B, Zhou Y, Ding S (2026) Physical activity and executive function in adolescents: Dual rumination pathways and mindfulness moderation. PLoS One 21(9): e0357384. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0357384 Editor: Hongyu Zou, South China Normal University, CHINA Received: March 26, 2026; Accepted: August 17, 2026; Published: September 1, 2026 Copyright: © 2026 Wang et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. Data Availability: All relevant data are within the manuscript and its Supporting Information files. Funding: This work was supported by the Humanities and Social Science Research Youth Fund of the Ministry of Education of China (Grant No. 23YJC890039) and the Basic Science (Natural Science) Research Project for Higher Education Institutions in Jiangsu Province (Grant No. 25KJD190001). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist. 1. Introduction Adolescence (10–19 years) is the developmental stage between childhood and adulthood [ 1 ]. It is a period of rapid cognitive development and increasing vulnerability to behavioral and emotional influences, making cognitive functioning during this stage an important topic of research [ 2 ]. Executive function (EF), as a higher-order cognitive function, refers to a set of cognitive processes required to execute complex and goal-directed operations, including three core components: inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility [ 3 ]. EF plays an essential role in adolescents’ academic performance, socio-emotional functioning, and adaptive behavior [ 4 ]. Therefore, identifying effective strategies to enhance adolescents’ EF has become an important research focus. The present study specifically focuses on late adolescents (17–19 years), a developmental stage in which core executive functions are more consolidated than in earlier adolescence but still show developmental plasticity and remain sensitive to behavioral and environmental experiences [ 5 – 7 ]. EF during adolescence is influenced by various environmental and social factors. Among these factors, physical activity (PA) has been associated with cognitive function and EF-related outcomes in children and adolescents, although the strength and consistency of these associations may vary according to activity type, intensity, timing, and cognitive demands [ 5 , 8 , 9 ]. In addition, PA is relatively low-cost, easy to implement, has minimal side effects, and can be readily integrated into educational or intervention settings, making it a feasible strategy for supporting adolescents’ cognitive functioning. Previous studies generally explain the association between PA and EF from two perspectives. On the one hand, PA may be related to EF through physiological and neurocognitive mechanisms involving brain regions and networks associated with executive control. For example, regular physical activity has been linked to structural and functional brain changes involving regions and networks closely related to EF, including prefrontal and frontoparietal systems [ 8 – 10 ]. On the other hand, complex physical activities often involve higher cognitive demands and require greater allocation of cognitive resources [ 5 ]. Compared with simple physical activities, complex activities require individuals to process dynamic information, maintain attention, and flexibly adapt to changing situations [ 11 , 12 ]. For instance, during a football game, players must continuously monitor the positions of teammates and opponents while adjusting their strategies in response to rapidly changing game situations [ 13 ]. Such cognitively engaging activities may activate brain regions related to EF and support EF-related cognitive processes [ 14 ]. Although existing research has extensively examined the association between PA and EF from physiological perspectives, relatively fewer studies have explored the psychological mechanisms underlying this relationship. However, examining PA and EF solely from a physiological perspective may provide an incomplete understanding of this association. Some scholars have proposed a PA–Cognitive Function Mediation Model, suggesting that psychological factors may also play an important role in linking PA and cognitive outcomes [ 15 , 16 ]. Compared with purely physiological mechanisms, psychological processes may better reflect individuals’ cognitive functioning in real-life social contexts. Therefore, examining psychological factors related to the association between PA and EF may provide a more comprehensive understanding of how PA is linked to cognitive functioning and may offer preliminary insights for future intervention research. One psychological process that may help explain the association between PA and EF is rumination. Rumination reflects repetitive cognitive processing that is closely linked to affect regulation, attentional control, and the allocation of executive resources. It is generally regarded as a multidimensional cognitive process related to both EF and psychological well-being [ 17 , 18 ]. Early research commonly conceptualized rumination as a maladaptive cognitive style in which individuals repeatedly focus on negative emotions and their causes, meanings, and consequences without adopting effective coping strategies when facing stress or adverse events [ 19 ]. However, subsequent research has suggested that rumination may include both maladaptive and adaptive components. Maladaptive rumination, often referred to as intrusive rumination (IR), is characterized by involuntary and repetitive negative thoughts that may trigger negative emotional responses and interfere with goal-directed behavior. In contrast, adaptive rumination, commonly referred to as deliberate rumination (DR), involves more reflective and purposeful cognitive processing that may facilitate problem-solving and goal pursuit [ 20 ]. According to Papageorgiou and Wells [ 21 ], these two forms of rumination may exert different influences on individuals’ emotional states, goal-directed behavior, and self-evaluation. IR may consume limited cognitive resources and interfere with executive functioning by maintaining negative emotional states and persistent intrusive thoughts [ 17 , 22 ]. In contrast, DR may increase individuals’ sensitivity to goal-related information and motivate them to reflect on the causes of difficulties and potential strategies for goal attainment [ 23 ]. However, its relationship with EF-related outcomes may depend on whether such reflection remains constructive or becomes cognitively demanding. Research on the development and mechanisms of rumination suggests that both biological and environmental factors may increase individuals’ tendency toward ruminative thinking [ 24 ]. Building on this perspective, several studies have examined the association between PA and rumination in specific populations. For example, studies have reported that regular PA is associated with reduced IR among inpatients with mental disorders [ 25 ]. PA has also been linked to emotional regulation and psychological well-being, which may be relevant to lower ruminative thinking [ 26 – 29 ]. Evidence from other populations provides similar indications. For instance, research on postmenopausal women has shown that individuals who maintain higher levels of physical activity exhibit lower rumination-related reactivity and better recovery from acute stress [ 30 ]. Moreover, some studies suggest that the duration of PA interventions may influence their association with rumination. For example, short-term PA interventions (e.g., 30 minutes) may not directly reduce rumination but may facilitate emotional recovery processes [ 31 ], whereas longer-term PA interventions have been associated with reductions in ruminative thinking [ 32 ]. Taken together, these findings from specific populations suggest a potential association between PA and rumination. However, most existing studies have focused on clinical or special populations. Investigating this association in non-clinical populations, particularly among adolescents, is equally important. Clarifying the relationship between PA and rumination during adolescence may provide valuable evidence for developing preventive strategies and promoting healthy lifestyles aimed at improving adolescents’ mental health. Within a cognitive–affective processing framework, mindfulness is defined as an attentional mode characterized by present-moment awareness and nonjudgmental acceptance [ 33 , 34 ]. Through a process described as monitoring plus acceptance, mindfulness facilitates adaptive processing of both internal and external cues. Its mechanisms have been conceptualized as decentering or reperceiving and reduced cognitive reactivity, which may weaken automatic negative processing and the associated consumption of cognitive resources [ 35 ]. Evidence from neural and cognitive research further indicates that mindfulness is associated with enhanced top-down attentional control and stronger coupling of executive networks, helping individuals maintain proactive control during cognitive tasks and safeguard limited executive resources [ 36 – 38 ]. On this basis, the present study conceptualizes mindfulness as a moderator rather than as a mediator. This choice was made because the current model does not assume that PA first changes adolescents’ dispositional mindfulness, which would be required for a mediation pathway. Instead, mindfulness is treated as an attentional and self-regulatory disposition that may condition how adolescents process physical-activity-related affective experiences and ruminative thoughts. In this sense, mindfulness may alter the strength of the PA → IR association and the IR → EF_RT association. On the one hand, PA may be associated with affect regulation and attentional engagement; individuals with higher levels of mindfulness may process physical-activity-related bodily and affective experiences in a less elaborative manner, which may strengthen the negative association between PA and IR [ 39 ]. On the other hand, mindfulness may condition the association between IR and EF-related task performance. Research in student populations suggests that mindfulness moderates the relationship between rumination and its perceived uncontrollability, indicating that higher levels of mindfulness may reduce the likelihood that rumination develops into a persistent negative cognitive cycle and consequently limit its consumption of cognitive resources [ 40 ]. Accordingly, the present study positions mindfulness as a moderator at two key loci (PA → IR; IR → EF_RT), generating conditional indirect associations within a moderated mediation framework. In sum, converging evidence suggests that PA is associated with EF in adolescents. Rumination has also been closely linked to EF, and PA may be related to lower levels of maladaptive rumination. Building on this literature, rumination may be involved in the association between PA and EF-related task performance. However, empirical tests of these potential mechanisms in youth remain limited, highlighting the need for further investigation. Accordingly, the present study first tests a parallel mediation model in which PA is associated with EF_RT through two rumination pathways: intrusive rumination (IR) and deliberate rumination (DR). This model is then extended into a moderated mediation framework by examining whether mindfulness moderates two theoretically important paths, namely the PA → IR path and the IR → EF_RT path. Thus, the moderated mediation model should be understood as a conditional extension of the initial parallel mediation model, rather than as a separate or competing analytical approach. By examining these relationships, the present study aims to characterize psychological association patterns linking PA, rumination, mindfulness, and EF_RT, and to provide preliminary evidence that may inform future longitudinal and intervention research on adolescents’ cognitive and mental health. 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Participants and data collection The study adopted a convenience sampling approach, recruiting late adolescents from six universities located in Jiangsu, Anhui, and Liaoning provinces in China. Data were collected between March 1, 2025 and July 1, 2025. In total, 530 questionnaires were obtained. After data screening, responses were excluded if (1) any item was missing or (2) there was evidence of straight-lining (i.e., all identical responses or a regular response pattern). This resulted in 450 valid questionnaires (valid response rate = 85%). Among the respondents, 266 were male (59.1%) and 184 were female (40.9%). Participants were aged between 17 and 19 years (M = 18.29, SD = 0.63). This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Medical College of Nantong University (Approval No.: TD-2024–109). All participants provided written informed consent prior to participation. For participants under the age of 18, written informed consent was obtained from their parents or legal guardians. All procedures were conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. 2.2. Measures 2.2.1. Physical Activity. Physical activity was assessed using the Physical Activity Rating Scale–3 (PARS-3) developed by Liang [ 41 ]. The scale consists of three items assessing exercise intensity, exercise duration (time), and exercise frequency, with each item rated on a five-point scale. According to the standard scoring procedure proposed by Liang [ 41 ], the continuous PA total score was calculated as follows: PA_total = Intensity × (Time − 1) × Frequency. The resulting score ranges from 0 to 100, with higher scores indicating higher levels of physical activity. Based on conventional classification criteria, PA levels can also be categorized as low (≤19), moderate (20–42), and high (≥43). In the present study, the continuous PARS-3 total score (PA_total) was used in the primary correlation and SEM analyses, whereas the categorical PA level was retained only for descriptive purposes. 2.2.2. Rumination. Rumination was assessed using the Chinese version of the Event-Related Rumination Inventory (C-ERRI), originally developed by Cann et al. [ 42 ] and adapted for Chinese populations by Dong et al. [ 43 ]. The C-ERRI includes two dimensions: intrusive rumination (IR) and deliberate rumination (DR), each consisting of 10 items, resulting in a total of 20 items. Participants rated the frequency of ruminative thoughts experienced during the past two weeks using a four-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (“never”) to 4 (“always”), with higher scores indicating greater levels of rumination. The C-ERRI was selected because the present study specifically aimed to distinguish between intrusive and deliberate forms of rumination. These two dimensions corresponded directly to the proposed dual rumination pathways in the theoretical model. However, because the ERRI was originally developed to assess rumination following a specific stressful or traumatic event, its use in the present non-clinical adolescent sample without a single event-specific reference should be interpreted cautiously. In this study, the C-ERRI scores were therefore interpreted as ERRI-based indicators of intrusive and deliberate ruminative thinking over the recent two-week period, rather than as event-specific post-traumatic rumination. This measurement issue is acknowledged as a limitation. In the present study, the scale demonstrated good internal consistency, with Cronbach’s alpha coefficients of 0.919 for IR and 0.923 for DR. 2.2.3. Executive function. Executive function (EF) was assessed using a web-based computerized neuropsychological assessment system. Participants logged into the system using preassigned accounts and passwords to complete three cognitive tasks: the Flanker task, the 2-back task, and the More–Odd Shifting task, corresponding to inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility, respectively. This assessment system has been applied and validated in previous studies and is suitable for use with late adolescents. It supports group-based administration, local operation, and automatic recovery after network interruptions without affecting the testing procedure or data integrity [ 44 , 45 ]. During testing, participants were instructed to respond as quickly and accurately as possible. For each task, RT-based performance indicators were extracted according to the scoring rules of the computerized assessment system. The Flanker task provided an inhibitory-control interference-cost index (IC_cost), calculated from the reaction-time difference between incongruent and congruent trials. The 2-back task provided a working-memory reaction-time index (WM_RT), and the More–Odd Shifting task provided a cognitive-flexibility reaction-time index (CF_RT). These indicators were not interpreted as accuracy scores or positively scored ability scores. Instead, they reflected RT-based task performance, with lower values indicating shorter reaction t
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