Executive function (EF) in early childhood is closely linked to later cognitive and social outcomes. The authors aimed to describe the developmental trajectory of executive function between 2.5 and 6.5 years of age and to assess how the COVID-19 pandemic influenced that trajectory. The focus was on both population-level growth and individual differences across repeated assessments.
The longitudinal sample comprised 139 children (71 girls). Assessments used the Minnesota Executive Function Scale to measure EF at multiple visits between ages 2.5 and 6.5 years. Of the families, 94 first attended the laboratory before the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. Some children were tested 1–3 years after the first lockdown; a subset of children had 3–4 assessments allowing growth-curve modelling across the age range reported.
Across the study period, children's executive functioning increased consistently from 2.5 to 6.5 years. The authors report an overall upward trajectory in EF during early childhood, indicating normative gains in self-regulation and related cognitive control abilities across this age span as measured by the Minnesota Executive Function Scale.
Despite overall gains, rank-order stability was apparent: individual differences in EF abilities remained stable longitudinally. That is, children who scored higher relative to peers at earlier ages tended to maintain that relative standing across subsequent assessments.
Maternal education emerged as a predictor of EF: children whose mothers had higher levels of education had higher EF scores across the measurement occasions reported. The abstract notes this association but does not provide detailed effect sizes or statistical estimates in the PubMed summary.
Timing relative to the pandemic was associated with changes in the pattern of individual differences. Children tested 1–3 years after the first COVID-19 lockdown showed greater variation in individual differences over time compared with children tested earlier. The abstract indicates increased variability in EF trajectories among those assessed after the initial lockdown period, suggesting the pandemic influenced heterogeneity in developmental paths.
In analyses restricted to children assessed on 3–4 occasions across 2.5–6.5 years, growth-curve models differentiated groups by schooling status during the first lockdown. Children who were in preschool during the first lockdown displayed steeper growth curve trajectories in EF than children who were in the first year of primary school at the start of the pandemic. The authors interpret the slower gains among the latter group as plausibly related to pandemic-related disruptions to early schooling and social routines during a critical period of adjustment to formal schooling.
The study highlights two main points: first, EF increases across early childhood while individual differences remain relatively stable; second, the COVID-19 pandemic altered the pattern of development, increasing variability and producing differential growth depending on the child's schooling stage at the time of the first lockdown. The observation that children newly in primary school showed slower EF gains suggests that disruptions to routines and the transition to formal schooling may have particular developmental consequences for self-regulation during sensitive adjustment periods.
The PubMed entry lists funding sources including NIH grant identifiers (R01HD083287). The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest. The abstract and plain language summary are available on PubMed; the full article is linked via Child Development and publisher sites for readers requiring detailed methods, statistical results, and supplementary material. The PubMed abstract does not report full statistical estimates, effect sizes, or all methodological details, which readers should consult the full text to review.
This longitudinal study of 139 children using the Minnesota Executive Function Scale found consistent growth in EF from 2.5 to 6.5 years, longitudinal stability of individual differences, an association with maternal education, and pandemic-related alterations in variability and growth trajectories. Children in preschool during the first COVID-19 lockdown showed steeper EF gains than peers who were in the first year of primary school, with the authors attributing differences to disruption of schooling and social routines during a critical adjustment period.