Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) is identified in this review as a leading pathogen of animal diarrhea. ETEC infections compromise the sustainability of animal husbandry and present risks to food safety and human health. Rising antimicrobial resistance and policies that encourage reduction or replacement of antibiotics have increased interest in alternative antibacterial strategies, including bacteriophage-based approaches.
The review summarizes the pathogenic mechanisms by which ETEC causes diarrheal disease in animals. While specific molecular details and variants are discussed in the full article, the overarching point is that ETEC pathogenicity underpins its role as a primary cause of diarrhea in production animals and therefore motivates targeted control measures.
Bacteriophages (phages) are presented as promising antibacterial candidates for controlling ETEC because of several distinguishing properties: rapid bactericidal activity, narrow host specificity that spares non-target intestinal microbes, and the absence of chemical residues. These characteristics make phages attractive when compared with conventional antibiotics, especially in the context of escalating drug resistance and regulatory or policy pressures to reduce antibiotic use in animal production.
The review collates research on the antibacterial applications of phages that target ETEC. It outlines experimental and clinical investigations that evaluate phage efficacy against ETEC strains isolated from livestock. The authors highlight phage utility both as therapeutic and preventive agents, noting their use in different delivery formats and study settings addressed in the source review.
A central focus of the review is the reported clinical effects of phage intervention against diarrhea in young production animals, specifically piglets, calves, and lambs. The article summarizes findings from studies in these species, describing outcomes relevant to diarrhea control. The review emphasizes the potential role of phage therapy for prevention and treatment in these livestock groups, while providing an evidence base for further clinical translation.
Beyond on-animal therapy, the review discusses the application of phages in the preservation of animal-derived foods and in the eradication of bacterial biofilms. Phage-based approaches for food safety aim to reduce ETEC contamination and prolong product shelf life without introducing chemical residues. The review also covers phage strategies for disrupting biofilms, an important consideration for controlling persistent bacterial contamination in production and processing environments.
The authors examine the dynamic co-evolutionary relationship between phages and bacterial hosts — described as infection–defense interactions. Understanding these reciprocal adaptations is presented as critical for anticipating phage resistance, optimizing phage selection and formulation, and improving long-term efficacy of phage-based interventions. The review positions this co-evolutionary perspective as important for guiding clinical translation.
The review aims to offer a reference for the clinical translation and application of ETEC phage therapy in veterinary practice. It synthesizes current evidence on mechanisms, animal clinical outcomes, food preservation uses, and evolutionary considerations to inform future research and implementation efforts. The article underlines the potential of phages as alternatives or complements to antibiotics in animal health, while signaling the need to address translational challenges highlighted by the co-evolutionary dynamics between phages and bacteria.
The authors declare no known financial interests or personal relationships that could have influenced the work reported. The review cites an extensive bibliography to support its synthesis; the PubMed record lists a comprehensive set of references that underpin the points summarized here.
Note: This summary is based on the English abstract and PubMed record of the review article. Detailed experimental results, specific study data, and granular methodological information are reported in the full review text and supporting references cited in the source but are not reproduced here.